Katzenbach and Smith’s Essay

Using Katzenbach and Smith’s article as a guide, what might you do if you wanted to encourage team performance? What risks would you face in doing this, and what would you have to be careful of? What I would do to encourage team performance is to set goals for them, in the Katzenbach and smith’s article, they have mentioned the 4 main elements that make team functional, common commitment and purpose, Performance goals, Complementary skills and Mutual accountability. Team functional, common commitment and purpose, this is like given the team a goal for them, having a goal can let the team work more effectively as they can achieve something, the more meaningful the goal is, the more likely the team will live up to the performance potential. For a team, it is very important to have almost everyone doing what they are best at, everyone has what they are good at and is important to have them using their own skills, in this way the job will be done more efficiently. Also the team needs to meet the deadlines, also to attend all the meetings, this is because the team will need to be update to all the new information so the team will understand what they are doing and having group discussion, also to know if the competitors has any new moves on their business. If the team can spend a lot of time together, in this way the team will get to know each individual’s working method or getting to know each other, in this way the relationship will be better which will make a much better team. A specific goal for any individuals can let them stay focus on one subject, this is so all the control for this person can focus on one thing which can give a much better result. Also the reward they can get from working to its performance potential, a reward can be very differently; it can be the manger will buy the team a dinner or give bonus, or even a promotion, this can improve the behaviors of the team, also will encourage them to work better or faster for the reward they can get. But the methods above doesn’t always work, having goal doesn’t mean that the team can achieve it, in the long term if they cannot achieve, is common sense that people will start to give up on the task, I think the task needs to be achievable and the team must know before they start how badly things can be, if they knew this, the chances of the problem will is less. People in the team will always dislike someone in the group, this can always happens and the disadvantage of this is the information between them might not be shared  which can cause problems. The rewards can also be a bad thing for the team, most people would like to have a promotion, but having promotion mean cause problems in the team, teammates can be fighting for the promotion and this can break the relationship between them.

The novel crow lake by mary lawson

The fresh Crow Lake written by the gifted Canadian novelist Mary Lawson has already attracted the readers ‘ attending non merely in Canada but besides in many other states. This book was translated into many linguistic communications. Although it is one of the first plant of Mary Lawson the fresh Crow Lake has impressed the readers greatly. From the rubric of the book we can see that this narrative takes topographic point in Crow lake, a instead little farming community located in the northern portion of Ontario. I think that the chief thought of this book is to demo the relationship between the characters who suffered greatly and wholly changed their behaviour and their relation to life. The narrative shows the childhood and the big life of the chief characters whose life is closely connected with the pools situated non far from their house. The chief character of the book Kate Morrison tells a awful narrative of her life. Kate was 7 old ages old when her parents died in the auto accident. Kate, her small sister Bo who was 1,5 old ages old and her brothers Luke and Matt who were much older than Kate became the orphans. They did non desire to populate individually after the awful calamity with their parents. The senior brothers Luke and Matt did everything they could to assist their household to last. Besides the community did non go forth the hapless small kids without their aid. The pools played an of import function non merely in the life of Kate Morrison but besides in the whole secret plan of the novel. May be that is why Mary Lawson, the writer of the novel, chose the rubric of her book Crow Lake. I would wish to analyse the significance of the pools in the novel and do a decision. The calamity that takes topographic point at the really beginning of the narrative had a serious influence on the kids of Morrison household. It is a great psychological injury for the kids who loose the dearest people in their life – their parents. The infantile cryings, their contrite feelings and their journey down memory lane when they had their female parent and male parent near them had a deep influence on the infantile head and the life perceptual experience. Of class their strong desire to remain together as a household is one of the chief points of the book. But I believe that the nucleus of the novel is that Kate tries to happen out what hinders her to be in good dealingss with Matt, her senior brother who ever set her the illustration, who taught her love the pools and the nature about. It is her battle that which sets bounds in her life and makes her hide feelings to Daniel, a immature adult male who is beloved to Kate. The pools in the novel are non simply a topographic point around which some events occur. The pools in the novel mean the more of import and valuable sense: they show those close dealingss between a sister and a brother which are deserving look up toing. Furthermore the pools in the fresh allow us see the immature old ages of Kate when she was guiltless and did non understand those things which she realized subsequently after Matt ‘s treachery. Kate says, â€Å" By the undermentioned September the pools themselves would hold been desecrated twice over, every bit far as I was concerned, and for some old ages after that I did non see them at all. And when I did, it was without Matt, and it was non the same † ( Lawson 218 ) Kate ‘s pick of her future calling depended on the pools in a manner. She was afraid that the pools would decease and at the same clip her remembrances of her childhood would decease excessively. She says, â€Å" I imagined myself traveling back to them one twenty-four hours in the hereafter, looking into their deepness and seeing aˆÂ ¦ nil † No admiration the writer gives precedence to the pools and the chief characters of the fresh Kate and Matt choose biological science as their field of survey. Matt explicated Kate many interesting thoughts about the nature around and the life signifiers of the pools during their legion walks to the pools. Kate learned many interesting things about the polliwogs of different types of toads and the polo-necks, about the triton and the mudcat, about the tops and the H2O striders. She was so enthusiastic hearing to Matt ‘s narratives: â€Å" The involvement which Matt had sparked in me had developed by so into a deeper wonder, and that twelvemonth I was detecting and inquiring about things without being prompted † Therefore she decided to analyze biological science in the University in Toronto and that was her right pick. Besides a great trade of beautiful descriptions of the pools are given in the novel. I think they have a particular function which is reflected in the rubric of the book. It is the writer ‘s conundrum which can be solved by the readers who are watching the class of the events in the novel attentively. I am certain Mary Lawson wants to demo the readers of her novel that nature has a great impact on us. It non merely gives us the chance to bask its beauty but it besides helps us to get the better of troubles which occur in our life and to outwear sorrow as it was in the Kate and Matt ‘s instance. Kate and Matt had a good clip together at the pools and they were happy. They tried non to believe about their household calamity, and watching the life signifiers in the pool they knew that they were the portion of the Nature, the portion of the Universe. When we see the loss of relationship between Kate and Matt we feel pain at our Black Marias. Furthermore Kate is such a individual who is afraid of new close dealingss with Daniel because she does non desire to hold one more loss. She is afraid of puting her fondnesss upon Daniel and puts her occupation and everything that is connected with it on the first topographic point in her life. Mary Lawson ‘s fresh Crow Lake proves the fact that the pools as a portion of Nature helped a immature miss Kate Morrison every bit good as her brothers and sister to last after the calamity in their household. Furthermore the pools became the portion of her remembrances connected with her childhood and with her senior brother Matt. And one more of import decision is that the pools put Kate on the right manner in taking her calling of a life scientist. Kate is certain that the pools are the portion of her life. She says, â€Å" There is no image of my childhood that I carry with me more clearly than that † ( Lawson 4 ) I think that every individual should happen such a topographic point in his or her life given by the Universe which will assist to get the better of the adversities and the wretchednesss of life and bask the happy minutes of life with beloved people.

How Accurate is Naviance Compared to ?

Naviance is a software tool offered through high schools that helps students navigate the college selection and admissions process. The software includes a ton of tools for guidance counselors to use in preparing college applications for their students, and includes a variety of college search and admissions prep tools for students. This blog post will provide a breakdown of the strengths of Naviance as well as the areas where we recommend leveraging additional resources (including some offered by ). One feature that is unique to Naviance is the data it provides on the GPA and SAT scores of students from your high school who applied to a particular college, as well as the outcome of their application (acceptance, rejection, or waitlist). This data is typically reproduced in the format of a scattergram. Our point of view on using Naviance to estimate your chances of admission is that you can kind of get a general sense of where you stand academically, but it is nowhere near sufficient if you want to actually estimate your chances of admission. Here’s our rationale: The college admissions process is holistic, so test scores and coursework/GPA are just two of the numerous factors considered in the admissions process. At most colleges they represent just 25-30% of how the admissions decision is made according to ’s data. This is because at selective colleges (with

Levendary Cafe Assignment Recommendations and Advice Memo Case Study

Levendary Cafe Assignment Recommendations and Advice Memo - Case Study Example 6. The cost to the company is the main problem because the occupancy, labor, food, supply, and marketing cost altogether incur a heavy cost for the restaurant. The occupancy cost includes maintenance of common area, real estate charge, as well as waste disposal cost. Altogether they comprise 10% of returns. Labor cost signifies 25% to 30% of revenues. Food costs represent around 32% of revenues. Supply cost signifies around 4% of total returns. Marketing fee accounts for 2% - 10% of revenue and overhead represents 5% - 15% 0f revenue. So, altogether the restaurant has to incur heavy costs on all these elements. Therefore, the gross profit of the restaurant is less (Barlett and Han 2). 2. Restaurant design: The design of the restaurant should be reliable with the designs of the US restaurants. It doesn’t matter whether the restaurants are big or small, but it should go well with the location. 4. Positioning: The present layout of the restaurant should be renovated. Better quality of food should be offered and the service should be fast so that the customer should not have to wait for their order. An excellent positioning changes the attitude of customers towards the product (Viardot 149; Hooley, Piercy and Nicoulaud 205). 5. Competition: It determines the suitability of a company’s activities which can add to its presentation (Porter). As the competition is high, so, the company should keep its margin low in order to attract more customer and they should create high awareness about their brand i.e. food quality in order to perform better from their competitors. The decisions which are needed to be taken for the better future of Levendary Cafà © are: Mia Foster can make Chen understand that what are the core values of the restaurant and also should build a panel for Louis Chen. She could also follow the approach of KFC or McDonald or other restaurants.

Annotated Bibliography Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Annotated Bibliography - Assignment Example In this book, the author gives information on the latest designs that are used in the aircraft industry. Among the recent materials used are the composite materials which have been highly rated. The author is an associate in the Royal Aeronautical Society, which makes the book have full information on the development of the aircraft industry. The federal aviation gives information on all the acceptable standards of materials used in making aircraft and the manual that can be used by pilots in the course of their working. The federal foundation is a body that controls the aircraft industry with control over a number of issues. This material hives information on how the technology has been improving in using composite materials in making aircraft. The author incepts that there are advantages in the use of the composite materials. The author is the head of strength analysis group. National oceanography centre. (27th June 2006). Composites in aerospoace- case studies. Southampton: National oceanography centre. Retrieved from: http://www.infosys.com/industries/aerospace-defense/case-studies/documents/living-composites.pdf With a team of experts, the national oceanography gives the case studies that have been used in making the composite materials a success. The experts have studied the use of the composite materials and how they should be improved in their usage. Edwards T. (September, 2008). Composite material revolutionizes aerospace engineering. New York: Engineering consultancy Atkins. Retrieved from: http://www.ingenia.org.uk/ingenia/issues/issue36/edwards.pdf Edwards gives all the information that is used in making the composite materials used in the aerospace. This information also gives the future of the use of composite materials as the technological improvement of aeronautical engineering. Edwards is a chief structural engineer and has ample information about composite

Frida Kahlo and Surrealism Movement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Frida Kahlo and Surrealism Movement - Essay Example The essay "Frida Kahlo and Surrealism Movement" states the surrealism movement and Frida Kahlo. Frida unconsciously painted from a surrealist style, though not a disciple or even admirer of surrealism- a result maybe due to her dramatic nature and extreme emotional and physical pain that she suffered. She often experimented with styles, icons and motifs and her work reflected strong sexual overtones, though she had no special explanations for her methods and once said "I put on the canvas whatever comes into my mind." Her paintings often shocked people due to their sexual boldness and exquisite starkness, her ruthless representation of herself in her paintings like ‘My Birth’, ‘What Water Gave Me’ ‘Henry Ford Hospital’ and ‘The Two Fridas’ are emotionally breathtaking. In 1953, when Frida Kahlo had her first and only solo exhibition in Mexico during her lifetime, a local critic wrote: 'It is impossible to separate the life and work of this extraordinary person. Her paintings are her biography.' Frida Kahlo was a passionate, dramatic and clever woman, the product of a Hungarian –Jewish father and a devout Catholic of Spanish-Mexican Indian decent mother. She was closest to her father who shared her interest in art but had a cold relationship with her mother. This potent cultural fusion, plus being surrounded by women (three sisters of her own and two half sisters) and witnessing the Mexican revolution, seems to have had a great hand in shaping Frida’s personality early on.

Taking The movie Candy man 1992. With reference to the opening scene Essay

Taking The movie Candy man 1992. With reference to the opening scene and at least one other scene from the film, discuss how the - Essay Example However, when the scene changed into an image of swarming bees with a terrifying, hollow voice in the background the meditative mood of the city changed into something threatening. Similarly, the scene where Helen Lyle is listening to the actual story of Candyman creates the same threat-- a threat that something very dreadful is approaching. The muffled screaming in the background, alongside menacing sound effects, adds to the terror of Candyman’s tragic story. Other film genres try to emotionally rouse viewers, but it is only the horror genre that rouses a certain and powerful emotional impact on the viewers. And although other film genres portray terrifying events, only horror films showcase the terrible, making terror its rationale. Horror never fails to discover a new frightening facade to reflect existing issues, unearthing the sinister facet to every desire, whether in a suburb or in deep space. A General Overview of the Symbols and Meanings in Candyman Candyman shows tr aditional horror and macabre premises: accompanied by a hounded female protagonist, the antagonist is a supernatural monster always hungry for a kill. Helen Lyle is an abused and emotionally tortured woman inflicting defensible vengeance, a demented murderer with a delusive second self. Thus the film establishes itself strongly and casually in a macabre ritual of horror. Common difficulties make the analysis of the film quite challenging. The finale, even though depicting brutal death for the enjoyment of the viewers, rejects the totally explicit moral pleasure of blameless ceremonial killing. Real and widely recognised scenery magnifies racial and social realities, interrupting the geographical dislocation normally obliged by the genre (Botting, 2001). Emphasising the combination of shock and inescapability, several film scholars sum up Candyman’s classic components: â€Å"knee-jerk shocks, stalking bogeyman, and touches of dark humour† (Botting, 2001, p. 140). They a lso noted that the film â€Å"locates the horrors in an identifiable and credible landscape of urban decay† (Botting, 2001, p. 140). Such juxtaposition upsets long-established beliefs and obscures analytic interpretation. As McCabe argues, â€Å"while it may be plausible to read Candyman as a complicated utopian fantasy of multicultural reproduction, it is also possible to read it as vicarious male desire for a black man who will finally give an uppity white girl what she’s been asking for† (Botting, 2008, pp. 66). Although the movie somewhat depicts social criticisms, especially as regards racial relations, the horror settles in the grisly entity of the black man and hence verifies racially prejudiced views of victimisation of white females and black sexual sadism. Where, traditionally, the issue of race embraces conflict, in Candyman the concept of race turns into a major manifestation of evil and when summoned, it erases all other options of gruesome characte r. Although the movie presents only a handful of constructive depictions of evil and appears to verify the most horrible fears of the white race in the black character that comes out, with vicious and brutal purpose, in the personal spaces of the home, the obstacles could be exaggerated (Botting, 2001). Candyman is not merely summoned by the white people; he also draws

Innovation and Sustainability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Innovation and Sustainability - Essay Example Causes of deforestation include but are not limited to wood extraction, expansion of agriculture as well as of the infrastructure. Along with satisfying certain human needs, deforestation has conventionally given rise to a lot of problems like climatic change and extinction of several species of animals and plants. A very obvious consumption habit of humans is the consumption of land. In the past two centuries, urban sprawl has surfaced as one of the outcomes of industrial revolution, as more people have moved to the urban areas in search of better opportunities and improved lifestyle. Consequentially, urban areas have spread to the lands that were previously undeveloped. One of the production habits is also related to deforestation. After cutting the trees, the wood retrieved from them is used for making numerous products. Trees are used for all kinds of purposes that include but are not limited to getting fruits, spices, nuts, latex, medicines, cork, fibers, natural resins, oils and timber. Most of these are eatables and are the fundamental elements that make our cuisines diverse and rich. Others like timber are of huge decorative significance. Timber is employed in the manufacturing of all kinds of furniture, floors and walls. Timber is also used as support for raising tents and fixing the wooden framework for concreting slabs. Urban sprawl has enabled humans to develop more industries, schools and hospitals for the wellbeing of the society. Establishment of these industries has increased the production of all sorts of goods including sports equipment, crockery and food ingredients. In order to conserve the forests, it is imperative that more markets are found that demand the products retrieved from the forests. This approach of sustainable use originates in the fact that adequate management of forests can help

Cost Accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Cost Accounting - Essay Example The stainless steel is manufactured in five main processes. These processes are melting, hot rolling, annealing and pickling, cold rolling and finishing. All the processes are done in different departments. The process of steel manufacturing starts with melting in the melt shop. In this department the scrap is melted. The scrap acts as the raw material of the stainless steel. Once the scrap is melted in the melting the output is transferred to the hot rolling mill for further processing. In this rolling department the meted scrap is rolled two meter wide. Once the hot rolling department is done with its work then the output is transferred to the annealing and pickling department for further processing. In this department fine coil of thickness varying from 1.2 mm to 13 mm is produced. The mechanical properties of the stainless steel are regained in this process. Some of these coils are sold to the industries the remaining ones are transferred to the fourth process of cold rolling. He nce the cost is allocated after considering the products which is sold to the industries. In cold rolling and annealing department the thickness of the coil is again reduced to 0.3mm in order to meet up the customers’ needs. In this process the coil is rolled into a flat surface to give the stainless steel flatness. Once this is done the output from this department is transferred to the metal finishing department. In this department the flat stainless steel is cut into different shapes and sizes which will be ultimately sold to the market (ArcelorMittal-c, n.d). As the manufacturing is done in a series of processes therefore the costing of the outputs must be done as per the process costing. While manufacturing any product many costs are incurred. Some of these costs can be identified form the products and some cannot. The costs which can be traced form the product are directly

Please write a 3 page paper on a chosen law from the uploaded Research

Please write a 3 page on a chosen law from the uploaded information and book - Research Paper Example This law brought about significant reforms in the US immigration process. In the next two days the bill was agreed in House and Senate respectively and gave the green signal for President signing. In 1985, the bill was referred to Judiciary committee twice and the subcommittee on immigration and refugee policy heard the bill. It was reported by the joint committee of conference on 14th October 1986. 245a.1 provision talks about the definition of the law. 245a.2 talks about the application of temporary residences. 245a.3 talks about the adjustment from the temporary resident to the permanent resident of the country (Dias, 2011). In 245a.4 adjustments to the lawful status of some foreign nationals and their voluntary departure have been discussed. 245a.5 has the provision of disqualification for the benefits of certain freshly legalized residents. According to the provision of 245a.6, the law can deny the treatment of permanent resident. All these provisions have ensured that employers must attest the immigration status of their foreign employees. According to the provisions of the law recruiting illegal immigrants intentionally is a criminal offence and the offence will be dealt with according to the provision of the law. Provisions of the law have legalized some illegal agricultural immigrants. The provisions also have legalized the illegal foreign nationals who came into the U S before 1st January 1982 and stayed in the country consistently by paying penalty and taxes and admitted all the previous offences. The provisions of the law gave focused towards US history and English knowledge. Congressional intent of the law was to control the immigration in USA. The US Congress had clear intent to legalize a huge number of illegal immigrants who had illegally come into the country. America has a long history of high dependency on foreign labors. This dependency had caused lots of immigration disputes. To take care

The trend today among youths Essay Example for Free

The trend today among youths Essay Question 2: The trend today among youths is to own the latest technological gadgets such as mobile phones and other devices. Is this a healthy development among young people? Give your opinion. You should write at least 350 words. In this modern world of ours, technological devices such as mobile phones and other gadgets are no longer foreign to us. Most of the young people today are treating these luxuries as a necessity as they compete to own the latest devices, leading to the adults’ questioning whether this is a healthy or an unhealthy development for youths today. In my own humble opinion, this issue will be a never-ending argument because it solely depends on the user itself to determine their purpose of using these devices. Thus in this essay, this issue can be discussed in terms of both healthy and unhealthy development and some recommendations. Firstly, with these newest devices, young people can access information wherever there are with just a touch of their fingers. This can help to expand their knowledge about the current issues of our world which will be a key role to take their mind to a higher level. They can also use these facilities to help them in their studies. All of these can help our country to produce more intellectual people which indeed is a healthy development by contributing to a more productive nation. In the old days, we had to do a lot of work and research in order to finish our school assignment, which is time consuming and tiring. Now we can obtain any information we need for our assignment without having the need to go to the library anymore. This can help the students to save more time for them to do other things. Furthermore, students can also increase their efficiency of work. The government also supports this by launching the ‘Wireless Village’ programme so that both rural and urban people can access the internet without having to subcribe to any internet packages. Overall, students can perform better and become more productive in their work, so this is certainly a healthy development. Moreover, young people that chase after these latest technological devices can help to strengthen the country’s commerce through the constant supply and demand of gadgets. This can help the government to focus more on developing this technology or subsidising companies in this industry as it can guarantee good profits. Besides, in line with the previous years’ budgets, the government is giving out ‘smart phone rebates’ to citizens above the age of 21. All of this can help to improve our economic level and lead to a more developed country, therefore another sign that it is a healthy development. On the other hand, this trend to own the latest technology devices could lead to a waste of money. Even though these devices are useful to us, but the fact is that most young people are chasing the latest devices regardless of cost. Mind the word ‘latest’ as they only want the latest edition that is being released in the market almost once per year for different brands such as Samsung and Sony. In order to keep up with the trend, these young people are willing to waste their money or more accurately their parents’ hard-earned money. Instead, they could use the money for better purposes like buying books or stationery. Furthermore, as time goes by, they might eventually become ungrateful for what they already have and keep nagging for new gadgets. This is unhealthy as it breeds materialism. In addition, if one did not have proper discipline within oneself while using these devices, one will easily become a victim to various addictions such as social networking and games. This can cause the young users to become distracted and greatly decrease their work efficiency. As for students, their performance at school might become affected. To add to the matter, young people can easily access inappropriate content such as porn and violent materials at a young age, unsupervised. All of this can retard their mind’s growth and become influenced by negative things. In the end, these devices become a bane to them instead of a boon to the development of society. Hence, for us to fully utilise the advantages of technology, I humble share some of my recommendations. Firstly, parents play a big role as they  spend the most time with their children thus they should watch strictly over their children’s usage of these devices per day by limiting it. Next, the government can work on preventing or blocking many harmful websites in our country so that young people have no access to it. In conclusion, I believe that in the end, it depends on the user itself whether to abuse or to use the devices to their disadvantage or advantage. We can draw an analogy from guns – used by the police it enforces the law; by a criminal it abets the crime. It would be illogical to put the gun in jail instead of the person who pulls the trigger. Similarly, it is we ourselves that click the mouse or swipe the screen of our gadget so we must use it responsibly to contribute towards a happier and healthier development in society today.

The Importance Of Sustainability In Hotels

The Importance Of Sustainability In Hotels Human activities over the past centuries have affected the earths ecosystem. Today, the negative consequences of human actions can be noticed everywhere. Being one of the larger industries in the world, the hospitality industry is an important contributor to these problems. In this report, Ill be focusing on what impacts humans have on the eco-system. Defining what sustainability truly is. How hotels can benefit from practising sustainability and what they could do to be sustainable with references. Human Impacts on the Planet To understand the magnitude of human impacts on the environment, economies, cultures and society, we must first understand the contributions of the travel and tourism sectors. Travel and tourism is one of the largest industries in the world, which is responsible for creating jobs, increasing a countrys Gross Domestic Product (GDP), generating revenue worldwide and many more. It comes with positive and negative effects. In 2008, there were 922 million international tourist arrivals with tourism receipts of US$944 billion [8]. It is estimated that the global travel and tourism industry contributed 9.6 per cent of global GDP and 7.9 per cent of worldwide employment in 2008 [9]. Tourism and travel is also a vector of climate change, accounting for approximately 5 per cent of global carbon dioxide emissions. Our human footprint on earth is disrupting the biogeochemical cycle that has remained unchanged for millions of years. Lavish cities built on deserts irresponsibly waste our limited water supply and fragment habitats. Hotels wasting huge amounts of energy, water and food after being built upon habitats that contain life necessary to the biogeochemical cycle such as photoautotrophs and other primary producers. Excessive amounts of food are both consumed and wasted beyond our human needs. Another consequence of human activity is the changing climate. Human activity has caused increases in the concentration of greenhouse gases, which have led to increases in air and ocean temperatures, and global sea levels. As our planets natural resources become depleted, man is urged to become more responsible in their usage of non-renewable resources and look for other renewable resources either in the form of energy, water or raw materials. What is Sustainability? UNWTOs definition of sustainability is: Sustainability principles refer to the environmental, economic and socio-cultural aspects of tourism development, and a suitable balance must be established between these three dimensions to guarantee its long-term sustainability [9]. In simple terms, sustainability means: things can keep going, can sustain themselves, can continue into the future and go on forever. From a human perspective, sustainability for our planet means that it can continue to do what it was designed to do; provide fresh air, clean water, produce food and have a high quality of life. Unsustainability means that it cannot and that is where we are at now. There are four basic principles to follow to achieve sustainability. These could be seen as the care instructions for our planet. Reduce our dependence on fossil fuels and heavy metals. Reduce our dependence on synthetic chemicals that persist in nature. Reduce our destruction of nature. Ensure we are not stopping people globally on meeting their needs. Demand for the earth services: air, water and food increases as the population increases and living standards rise. But the earths ability to provide these services is declining because of the way we are living. In our search for prosperity, growth and success, we are destroying the system that we as humans are completely dependent on, nature. We humans have become a threat to our own way of life. The earth is a system and everything is connected, society, environment and economy. To live sustainably, we need to follow the four care instructions and apply them to everything we do at home and at work. Sustainable operation in hospitality can be defined as a hospitality operation that manages its resources in such a way that social, economic and environmental benefits are maximised in order to meet the need of the present generation while protecting and enhancing opportunities for future generations [2]. Many hotels today have recognised the negative effects their business activities have had on the environment and have taken steps to minimise or prevent those impacts from happening. Today, the term green hotels describes hotels that achieve to be more environmentally friendly through the efficient use of energy, water, and materials while providing quality services [10]. Green hotels conserve and preserve by saving water, reducing energy use, and reducing solid waste. They have seen benefits such as reduced costs and liabilities, high return and low-risk investments, increased profits, and positive cash flows [10]. Identifying these benefits and incentives has allowed the popularity of green hotels to grow. Using the Orchard Garden Hotel, San Francisco, as an example, what is so different about this hotel? Why is it green? The answer truly is that its green from the inside out. The concrete of the basement, and all the walls and floors have recycled contents in them. The carpet backing is 100 per cent recycled. The drapes, the sheets, curtains and bed spreads in the hotel are washable. This is very important because they do not have to use chemicals to keep them clean. The wood that Orchard Garden uses throughout the hotel is actually Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certified maple and all the guestroom furniture is made out of that material. The beautiful wood panelling that you could see in the restaurant, lobby and hallway is actually recycled particle board. Another unique feature of the hotel is the key card management control system. Simply by slotting the key in a switch right by the front door in the guestroom will enable all the light switches, air-conditioning and heating. Or chard Garden also encourages their staff to implement green business practices. These are the things that you can truly do and it shows that it does not necessary cost more money to go green. (For more information, refer to case study, page 18) Why Should Hotels Practise Sustainability? Hotels, resorts, motels, hostels and other forms of accommodation are the largest sector of the travel and tourism industry, and it has been shown that hotels have the greatest negative impact on the environment compared to other commercial establishments. Implementing good environmental practices in hotel operations, including using biological resources more sustainably, can result in positive business benefits as well as make an important contribution to biodiversity conservation. Key business benefits include: Appealing to engaged consumers Tourists are increasingly motivated by sustainability and contributions to biodiversity conservation, as well as healthier environments and products. Reducing costs Good biodiversity practices can actually lower a hotels operating costs, by reducing expenses for resource procurement, usage and disposal. Improving the quality of the destination Destinations rich in biodiversity are attractive places, appeal to quality customers, and offer scope for biodiversity-based recreational activities. Improving employee productivity and sense of responsibility to the environment Employees are often strongly motivated by actions to enhance biodiversity; such motivation helps to increase employee productivity and loyalty, and can reduce staff turnover. Securing a hotels license to operate Implementing good practices for biodiversity demonstrates that a hotel cares about the environment and runs a responsible business, and can lead to increased support from government, staff and local communities. Attracting investment from socially responsible investors Investors want to be sure that their funds are invested in businesses that have good environmental records. Energy and Water Consumption, and Waste Created in the Hospitality Industry Hotels are one of the largest consumers of energy, which provide guests with high levels of comfort, services, facilities and amenities. On average, Americas 47,000 hotels spend $2,196 per available room each year on energy. This represents about 6 per cent of all operating costs. Through a strategic approach to energy efficiency, a 10 per cent reduction in energy consumption would have the same financial effect as increasing the average daily room rate by $0.62 in limited-service hotels and by $1.35 in full-service hotels [2]. Hotels are aware of their costly consumption of non-renewable energy, huge generation of wastes and excessive use of water, and are taking measures to be greener. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency, there are 47,000 hotels that spend $2,196 per available room each year on energy which represents about 6 per cent of all operating costs [2]. Utilities make up 20 per cent of the average US hotels operating costs a huge percentage with a major impact on the bottom line and the environment. Inefficient use of lights, heating and air conditioning is one of the major culprits in this waste of resources. Solid waste generated by hotels comes in many sizes and forms. Wastes from 25 hotels were examined. The statistics showed that from 1991-1993 the hotel waste consisted of 46% food waste, 25.3% paper, 11.7% cardboard, 6.7% plastics, 5.6% glass, and 4.5% metals [10]. This gives a clear indication of the various forms of waste that a small number of hotels can be produced in a city. It is estimated that by 2010, water use will increase to approximately 475 gallons per day for each room in high luxury facilities [10]. This will continue to put more stress on an already stressed environment. The use of water will always be a vital part of the guests experience. However, hotels must take the initiative to inform guests of the impacts their actions would have on the environment. Energy Conservation Hotels can have large, costly energy requirements, especially in areas for cooling, heating, lighting and others. There are various alternatives and ways to conserve energy such as: Solar Power The application of the suns rays can be used for natural lighting, heating and capturing electricity through solar panels. Wind Power Wind turbines capture the kinetic energy stored in the wind, which is then converted into electricity, very similar to those used in farms. Hydropower Hydropower is electrical energy that is generated by using the flow of water through a turbine with a generator. Geothermal Power Geothermal power is energy that is gained by heat stored beneath the surface of the earth. Pumps bringing heat from beneath our feet can be used to directly heat hotels and other buildings or used as a source of power that drives steam turbines to produce electricity. Hotels worldwide are recognising the benefits of energy conservation and are undertaking projects to tap onto these benefits, and doing their part to save the environment. Choices made when purchasing equipment can have a major impact on the hotels operating expenses and on the environment; therefore, it is important that efficiency be considered before purchasing energy intensive equipment. For example, the Solar Valley Micro-E Hotel, Dezhou City, eastern China, is the worlds largest solar-powered hotel. It has thousands of permanent solar panels and solar heat pipe collectors to harvest the energy from the sun, and stores enough energy to sustain 70 per cent of its needs. The Hyatt Regency International Hotel in New Zealand understood that guests often left appliances and heating and cooling systems on when they were out of their rooms. The hotel developed a project to link energy use with room occupancy. Now when a guest leaves the room, all energy appliances shut down, with the exception of refrigerators, alarm clocks, and other essential appliances. The project costs were $16,000, while the payback period was only 14 months, with savings of $14,000 annually [10]. About 40 per cent of the Fairmont Chateau Lake Louises electricity needs are met by wind and hydro electricity. Since 1999, they have been using green power derived from sources such as wind, hydro and biomass. They produce little or no greenhouse gas emissions and have minimal environmental impacts. The Sheraton Auckland Hotel and Towers realised that the daily washing of sheets, towels, flannels, tablecloths, and other linens accounted for 35% of the energy consumed in the laundry process, while drying consumed 65%. The hotel simply changed the temperature of the wash from 85 degrees Celsius to 65 degrees Celsius. This change saved $2,000 in energy costs in the first 3 months alone, and the linens came out just as clean. This project, in addition to reducing energy costs, reduced the use of washing chemicals and decreased pollution of the hotel wastewater. Also, allowing the hotel guests the option of having linens washed every other day rather than daily can significantly assist in energy and water conservation [10]. A hotel can have thousands of individual light bulbs and may use 30 per cent of its total electricity. Lighting is the second largest energy consumption system in a hotel and presents one of the best opportunities for energy savings by doing some simple upgrades. By making upgrades in guest rooms, common areas and behind-the-scenes areas, a hotel can see immediate, consistent savings with no impact on the overall guest experience. Ways to save electricity: Replacing traditional incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescent light (CFL) bulbs can reduce maintenance and cut lighting costs. CFLs last many times longer and use five times lesser energy than a traditional light bulb. A compact fluorescent light used in place of an incandescent light that is left on continuously for 12 months, all 8,760 hours of the year, will pay for itself in less than one year [10]. Install motion sensors or key-activating systems in rooms. With such a system the room lights will always be off when unoccupied, without inconveniencing the guest. When upgrading lighting systems in common areas, consider installing new control systems to manage lighting in large areas. Computerised lighting controls will allow hotel operators to provide the ideal level of lighting based on the time of day, event or situation. This will prevent unnecessarily high lighting levels or unneeded lighting. Hotels should educate their staff to switch off lights and turn down heating or air-conditioning when rooms are unused. Simple actions like closing the drapes during the summer months can save the hotel money in air-conditioning costs. Install films on windows, which will lower heating and cooling loads. Window films can also reduce the glare in guestrooms. Use proper insulation and reflective roof coverings. This can save in heating and cooling costs. Purchase appliances, which are Energy Star certified wherever possible. In laundry areas, remove old washing machines and replace them with both energy and water conserving models. Use natural daylight in lobby, bar and restaurant for as much as possible. Consider installing skylights. Exterior lighting can be used as a design element and can have dramatic effects. However, consider adding timers, which would switch off the lights at times like 3am, when no one is around to impress. Install solar water heating systems for heated pools. Use covers to cover hot tubs and pools when the areas are closed, this will reduce evaporation. Exit signs, such as LED, when installed throughout a building can save hundreds or even thousands of dollars in energy and maintenance costs. Use an energy management system (EMS), which is designed to control the mechanical equipment in the hotel, thereby saving utilities such as gas and electricity. This system determines when air-conditioning or heating can be switched on/off or up/down. As soon as the guest enters the room, his room key card is inserted in a slot behind the door. Electricity for the light and the air-conditioner will now be activated. As soon as the guest leaves the room the utilities will be automatically switched off. The energy consumption of the hotel can be monitored by comparing reports generated by the energy management system and the front office. For example, if occupancy levels are not high the energy consumption should be lower and visa versa. In kitchens, use smaller convection ovens to replace oversized conventional ovens. If available, schedule an energy audit with the local energy provider or energy auditor. Water Conservation Water conservation is just as important as energy conservation. Fresh clean water is one of the most valuable commodity on earth. Using improved technologies hotels can deliver equal or better services to guests using less water. From a guests perspective, the use of water is a vital part of his or her experience. Any water restrictions would result in guests being unhappy and so maintaining adequate water comfort must be central to all water management strategies. Ways to save water: Start a linen reuse programme for towels and sheets in all guest rooms. Giving the option to guests to choose whether or not they want to reuse their towels and sheets, which can save huge amounts of water and reduce chemical wastage. Laundry washers, which use final rinse water for prewashing of the next load of laundry. Install low-flow showerheads and sink aerators. 2.5 gallons per minute (GPM) showerheads and 1.5 GPM aerators are recommended for water savings and guest satisfaction respectively. The latest generation of sink taps is equipped with infrared sensors that automatically turn off when a person walks away or when the allotted quantity per wash has been delivered. Install low-flow toilets or toilet-tank fill diverters. The THC Rotorua Hotel in New Zealand had urinals that flushed automatically every nine minutes. Each flush used 10 liters of water. This added up to 66 litres per hour, regardless of whether the urinals had been used or not. The total consumption for three urinals was 4,740 daily [2]. After realising the huge water cost, the hotel installed detectors that could sense when someone is using the urinals, and allow flushing to occur after being used. This greatly reduced the water usage from 66 litres per hour to 40 litres during the day and 20 litres in the night. For gardens, watering should take place either early in the morning or later in the day to reduce the possibility of evaporation in hot weather. Switch to drought resistant plants. Replace mowed landscaping with artificial ground cover or native ground cover. Pool covers will reduce evaporation and have the added advantage of reducing heat loss in cooler climates. To reduce water use, consider rainwater harvesting and/or a greywater system. Properties investing in fountains and water features should turn off appliances at night and consider the use of greywater. In kitchens, use a food-thawing machine instead of running water over foods for faster thawing. Water conservation urges hotels to use improved practices that will reduce and enhance the beneficial use of water, addressing the technical and human side of water management issues. For example, The Houston-based Green Hotels Association observed water use in the San Antonio-based La Quinta Inn. Through a one-month period, the hotel showed an average of 100 gallons of water being used per guest per billing period. The chain totaled more than a billion gallons in the first nine months in 1996. La Quinta Inn then installed low-flow showerheads and aerating faucets in each room, resulting in a saving of $1.50 per room per month. Replacing all toilets with ultra-flow toilets at a cost of $3,250 showed a payback in 2.1 years and annual water saving of 180,000 gallons per year [10]. Waste Reduction The hospitality industry creates tons and tons of waste each year due to its mass facilities, amenities and services provided to their guests. To give an indication of the size of waste created, The European Union produces 1.3 billion tons of waste each year. In other words, 3.5 tons of refuse and liquid or solid waste per European citizen, nearly a third of this food waste for which the food service industry has a responsibility. Another 40 45 million tons of this huge mountain of waste is classed as hazardous, or particularly dangerous [2]. In response to current trends, hotel owners and operators are analyzing ways to make changes in operations to cut waste disposal costs, protect the environment and increase guest loyalty. A few proactive hotel corporations have mandated hotel environmental programmes such as water and energy efficiency and more recently, waste reduction and recycling. Ways to reduce waste: To increase guest involvement, place recycling instructions in guest rooms and locate recycling collection containers in convenient locations in convention halls and public areas throughout the hotel. Always place a trash container along side of the recycling container in public areas to avoid trash being thrown in the recycling bin. Buy guest amenity and office products that contain recycled material. Provide amenities such as shower caps, shoe wipes on request. Shred office paper and use it to package shipments. Decrease the number of hard copies of documents by establishing a central filing system to store documents. Use recycled, unbleached and chlorine-free paper products, and try to minimise the amount of paper used by staff and guests. Print with soy-based inks, which are less harmful to the environment. Purchase vacuum cleaners with reusable bags versus disposables ones. Reduce the need for pesticide applications in guest rooms and employee work areas by removing food containers, garbage and recycling containers daily; clean employee break rooms daily to remove crumbs and spills; and report cracks around doors and windows to the engineering department for repairs to prevent crawling pests from entering. Re-dye stained bath towels and washcloths for reuse as pool towels and cleaning cloths. Re-dye linens and carpet to match remodeled decor. Re-dye tablecloths and napkins to match new color schemes when remodeling; reuse worn table linens as cleaning rags or remake into aprons, laundry bags, mattress covers. Provide reusable items such as cloth napkins, glass cups, ceramic dishes, etc. with all food and beverage services. Just by using glass or plastic coasters can reduce cocktail napkin waste, and by providing mugs for coffee instead of disposable cups can play a large part in conserving the environment. Purchase refrigerators, freezers, and coolers which are CFC-free. Donate leftover food to a local non-profit organisation. Consider using a compost bin. Purchase cleaning products with less hazardous constituents. Use a hazardous chemical containment pan to prevent leaching of unused chemicals. Donate leftover guest amenities, old furniture and appliances to charities. Refinish and reupholster damaged and dated furniture. Use dry, concentrated dishwasher chemicals in dispensers to reduce chemical spills and waste. Most guests are pleased to see the use of products made from recycled materials, energy efficient light bulbs, low-flow showerheads and recycling programmes in hotels and restaurants that they patronise. Hotel managers report that most guests are willing to participate in the hotels recycling efforts. No matter how well planned the hotels waste reduction and recycling initiatives may be, they probably wont succeed without the support of the hotel department managers and staff. Successful hotel recycling programmes require employee involvement, training and recognition. Involve all employees in the recycling programme. They are already disposing of waste as they perform their daily jobs. Recycling is simply disposing of job related waste in a different container from the one used for trash. Hotels should seek their ideas in organising the recycling programme and for methods of collecting and storing the materials. Employees are more likely to support a programme that they understand and have helped design. Case Study The Orchard Garden Hotel Location: 466 Bush Street, San Francisco, California 94108 Management Company: Portfolio Hotels Resorts, LLC Number of Guests Rooms: 86 rooms Awards and Certifications: San Francisco Green Business Green Seal Certified Silver LEED certified U.S. Green Building Council Best Organic Restaurant in San Francisco British Airways Tourism Located in the heart of San Francisco, the Orchard Garden Hotel is near the Financial District, Union Square, and the Chinatown gate. At 10 stories, the 56,000-square-foot building includes 86 guestrooms and a 56-seat restaurant and bar. The hotel opened in 2006, and in 2007, it became the third hotel in the U.S. and the fourth hotel in the world to earn LEED certification from the U.S. Green Building Council. Among the Orchard Gardens most innovative features is the key card. After allowing guests into their room, the card becomes a powerful energy-management system. Guests activate the rooms lighting and mechanical systems by inserting the card into a slot near the door. When they leave the room, they remove the card from the box, turning off all systems except for one outlet, which can be used to charge laptops or cell phones. The system, which cost about $37,000 to install, was anticipated to save nearly 20 per cent in energy costs, paying for itself in two years. Since the building is located in an urban centre, multiple public-transit lines stop within walking distance of the hotel. The hotel also features bicycle stalls for both employees and guests, and employees who cycle to work are welcome to use a guestroom shower. High levels of insulation reduce sound transmission between rooms while improving energy efficiency. More than 80 per cent of all regularly occupied spaces are day lit, reducing the need for electric lighting, and a roof terrace strengthens visitors sense of connection to the natural environment. The project team selected materials for their recycled content, regional origin, and low chemical emissions. Materials used in the project include concrete made with flyash in place of some of the cement, wood certified to Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) standards, and low-emitting carpeting made with recycled content. During the construction process, the project team diverted 77 per cent of all waste, by weight, from the landfill. The entire hotel is designated tobacco-free. Housekeeping staff use green cleaning products, and all fabrics, selected for their low chemical emissions, are machine-washed to avoid the use of dry-cleaning chemicals. Bins in each room encourage guests to recycle, and the hotel uses recycled paper and soy-based inks for their printed materials. Thanks to these and other strategies, the hotel has been recognised by the San Francisco Green Business Programme and certified according to Green Seals standard for lodging properties. Conclusion For a hotel to change its traditional ways of operating and to accept sustainability will take time. Being sustainable is not costly and does not really have a slow payback rate. A hotel can start its journey in becoming green by implementing simple changes, policies and services such as providing your guests with bicycles, walking maps to encourage them to do something that is more environmentally friendly and healthy. Creating an incentive programme to encourage your staff to participate in and improve upon environmentally friendly practices. Replacing a simple incandescent light bulb with a CFL. Coming up with creative ways to reward hotel guests for being green. One great example is Crowne Plaza Copenhagen Towers offers a free meal to guests who generate 10 watt hours of electricity on the gym bicycle [12]. These are only a few examples of what hotels could do, while some steps may be small, none are insignificant. If we can follow the four basic principles (page 4) to achieve sustainability, we can work together to be sustainable. We will all have a better quality of life, we will waste less, we will pollute less and we will create more things we value in society while improving our planets chance of providing us with the very things we need to survive.

Hedgerow Management in Pastoral Landscapes

Hedgerow Management in Pastoral Landscapes Abstract Hedgerows are an important part of the British landscape, providing both food and shelter for a number of taxa. As part of the UK government’s Environmental Stewardship (ES) Scheme, farmers are granted subsidies for, amongst other things, ‘enhanced hedgerow management’. Although hedgerow management under ES is expected to have beneficial effects for taxa such as invertebrates and birds, less is known about the effects ES management will have on small mammal communities. The aim of this study was to investigate whether this ‘enhanced hedgerow management’ is affecting hedgerow characteristics in pastoral landscapes and whether small mammal abundances are increased under ES managed hedgerows. ‘Conservation buffer strips’ (2m+ unimproved grassy margins) were investigated as a possible improvement to ES hedgerow management. Using live trapping methods, I investigated small mammal abundances in ES managed hedgerows compared with non-ES managed hedgerows. Wood mice Apodemus sylvaticus and bank voles Clethrionomys glareolus were the most abundant species, with some captures of field voles Microtus agrestis and common shrews Sorex araneus. Small mammal abundances were increased in ES managed hedgerows, however, the presence of a ‘conservation buffer strip’ was more significant in increasing small mammal densities. ES management showed no definite effect on the hedgerows’ characteristics. Introduction Agricultural intensification since the 1940s has led to widespread and significant reductions in the biodiversity of many agricultural areas. This drive for greater yields has been linked with the population decreases seen in many species of farmland specialists and non-specialists who often inhabit farmland (Robinson and Sutherland, 2002). Farmland habitats can be categorised into non-linear habitats such as set-aside, cropped fields and woodland areas, and linear habitats, generally field boundaries, such as ditches, banks, streams and hedgerows. These field boundaries remain relatively undisturbed areas and are therefore significant wildlife corridors within otherwise inhospitable agricultural landscapes (Tew, 1994). Although there continued to be a reduction in total area of hedgerows within the UK during the 80s and early 90s, the last decade has seen small increases in the area of hedgerow as their conservation significance became more documented (Barr and Gillespie, 2000). This increase in the number of hedgerows has been driven by government backed grants. Countryside Steward (CS), set up in 1991 encouraged selected farmers to enhance and conserve the wildlife within their farms, a large part of this involved the laying of new hedgerows. The CS schemes have now been superseded by the Environmental Stewardship Schemes. More recently, hedgerow grant pilot schemes have been set up in a number of regions to encourage landowners, both farmers and non-farmers to manage their hedgerows more effectively; these grants are available to pay for gapping up, hedge laying or coppicing. Small mammals in pastoral land are largely confined to hedgerows or other non-crop features and are therefore particularly vulnerable to intensification (Bates and Harris, 2009). Small mammal species constitute the main prey biomass for a number of species of mammals and birds, and therefore small mammal abundance directly influences the abundance and diversity of predator species contributing to the complexity of local food webs (Korpimaki and Norrdahl, 1991). There remains some debate on the importance of linear habitats for small mammals, with some suggesting that they cannot support viable populations, that those found in hedgerows are ‘sink’ populations (Tattersall et al. 2004). However, there is evidence that small mammal abundance and diversity does not depend on the linear or non-linear character of the habitat and that linear habitats can support viable populations (Gelling et al. 2007). Thus, in large expanses of uninhabitable grassland, field boundary hedgerows are of great importance for maintaining small mammal populations in an agricultural landscape, but differing farming practices can lead to a huge variety in the quality of these habitats As the emphasis of farming has shifted there have been a number of agri-environment schemes introduced across Europe with the aim of reversing the effects of previous intensification and enhancing agricultural land for wildlife (Kleijn and Sutherland, 2003). The UK introduced a new set of farming standards in 2005 with farmers now guaranteed subsidy payments, known as ‘cross-compliance’, as long as they follow a set of prescribed conditions aimed at improving the environmental value of their farms. A compulsory code of good practice will preclude farming land within 2 m of the centre of a hedge (DEFRA, 2005a). Beyond cross-compliance subsidies, farmers can also apply to put their farmland into Environmental Stewardship (ES). ES is a tiered system, with Entry-Level ES designed to allow most farmers access to the payments by compiling a farm management plan that aims to improve the features of their farm for wildlife and to maintain/improve the scenic value of the British countryside. The enhanced hedgerow management option within ES requires that the farmer cut the hedge no more than once every 2 years, that hedgerows are cut during the winter and that cutting be staggered across the farm. The combined aim of these prescriptions is to ensure that at least some of the hedgerow is allowed to flower every summer (Defra, 2005b). Properly managed hedgerows are valuable features, playing a key role in enhancing the wildlife value of farmland. Flowering hedgerows are an important source of food and shelter for a number of birds (Hinsley and Bellamy, 2000). Studies suggest that the ES schemes will have a beneficial effect, mainly for taxa such as invertebrates and birds (Kleijn and Sutherland 2003), Whittingham (2007) emphasizes the importance of monitoring the effects of ES to ensure that the scheme’s prescriptions meet the needs of a greater range of species. It is much less well understood how the changes to hedgerow management will effect small mammal abundance, and it is important that there is greater understanding of the factors that influence small mammal populations since small mammals provide the major source of prey biomass for many larger predators (Love et al., 2000). Small mammals also play a role in a range of important ecosystem processes (Hayward and Phillipson, 1979). Previous studies have established the main effects of varying hedgerow management within arable landscapes (Shore et al. 2005). Arable environments provide cover for small mammals due to the height and density of the crop. Small mammals have been shown to make substantial use of the field at certain times of the year (Tattersall et al. 2001; Tew et al. 2000; Todd et al. 2000). However, no small mammal species have been shown to make use of agriculturally improved pastoral fields at any time of year (Montgomery and Dowie 1993). Grazed pastoral land provides very little cover, restricting the movements of resident small mammal communities. Therefore, hedgerow management in predominantly dairy and cattle areas will likely have a large influence on the success of small mammal populations (Gelling et al. 2007). In particular, the level of ground cover vegetation along the hedgerow and the presence of some form of non-farmed margin can significantly affect the small mammal abundance (Bates and Harris 2009, Gelling et al. 2007). The 2m margin prescribed by ‘cross compliance’ is irrelevant in terms of providing cover within pastoral landscapes. Although the 2m margin remains uncut and clear of interference from the farmer (no fertilisers), year round grazing will mean that little cover is offered right up to the base of the hedgerow. Therefore, whereas ES management may boost small mammal numbers within arable areas (Shore et al. 2005), the value of ES hedgerow management within pastoral landscapes is less well understood. I utilised a number of hedgerow sites to compare hedgerow structure and small mammal communities on ES farms versus non-ES farms. For each farm, one site was selected to be representative and one to include a significant (2m plus) conservation buffer strip of unimproved, non-grazed grass/shrubland. I aimed to investigate (i) how ES management effects the hedgerow characteristics, in particular the level of ground cover for small mammals (ii) whether these ES prescriptions are providing any significant benefit for small mammal densities and (iii) as the movements of small mammals within pastoral landscapes are so restricted, could small mammal assemblages in hedgerows be significantly improved by including an unimproved, non-grazed, grassy margin or ‘conservation buffer strip’ (2+m from the edge of the hedgerow). Methods Sites The study was conducted over 20 different farms spread across County Durham and Northumberland. The farms were selected due to their suitability for this study, each farm containing both a hedgerow site with a conservation buffer strip and at least one without. All farms selected were representative in terms of habitat of those within the local area. A hedgerow was defined as a continuous line of woody vegetation no more than 3m tall. Hedgerow Survey The farms were paired, with one ES farm neighbouring a non-ES farm, making 10 farm pairs and 20 farms in total. Hedgerow surveys were carried out throughout June 2009. 10 hedgerows were randomly selected on each farm. All hedgerows on each farm were surveyed using an edited version of the Defra Hedgerow Survey Form and handbook (DEFRA, 2007). Each hedgerow was measured to determine its cross-sectional area. The character of the hedgerow was scored by reference to a series of standard diagrams, noting the level of available ground level cover for small mammals (1=little or no vegetation cover at ground level, 2=gappy cover at ground level, 3=constant vegetation cover from hedgerows at ground level). Additional variables were recorded, including whether the hedge had been flailed (mechanically cut) recently, i.e. during the previous winter, the number of standard and veteran trees and the number of woody species within the hedgerow. The data sets for cross-sectional area, level of grou nd vegetation cover and the number of woody species were averaged to produce an overall mean value for each farm. The number of flailed hedgerows was summed to give an overall percentage of hedgerows flailed on each farm. Trapping Procedure Previous trapping studies have shown that, unlike in arable land, small mammals within pastoral land stay almost entirely within the hedgerows and therefore hedgerows can be treated as linear habitats (Gelling et al. 2007). Trapping was carried out in two major trapping sessions, mid-April to June and mid-July to August, 2009. Within each of the 20 farm sites I selected a representative hedgerow and a hedgerow flanked by an unimproved 2m+ grassy margin, designated a conservation buffer strip, making a total of 40 trapping sites. Where possible the hedgerow sites were selected randomly, however, each ES site was required to have been managed according to the prescriptions of Stewardship farming, i.e. the hedgerows were cut not more than once every two years and the farmers adhered to the prescribed 2m margin of non-interference (2m from the centre of the hedge) (DEFRA 2005a, DEFRA 2005b). Every hedgerow selected was flanked by improved or semi-improved grassland for the grazing of dai ry cattle and/or the production of silage. At each site, a 104m section of isolated hedgerow (not directly connected to woodland) was selected.13 Longworth traps were placed at ground level within the hedgerow, at 8m intervals. Traps were provisioned with hay, apple, oat grains and dried mealworm. The traps were set at dusk and checked at dawn and dusk for three days. All targeted animals that were captured were fur-clipped to help identify re-captures. Species, sex and weight were recorded for each animal before release at the point of capture. Analysis Hedgerow characteristics were recorded and analysed using a paired measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) (SPSS 17.0.2). I had multiple dependent variables that I wished to analyse, however, using multiple one-way ANOVAs to try to do this would have raised the probability of a Type I error (Gibson et al. 2007). Therefore the data was investigated using a MANOVA which controls the experiment-wide error rate. Multiple dependent variables that were related (e.g. Cross sectional area of hedge and amount of ground cover, etc.) were analysed in one test, with the hedgerow management (ES managed or non-ES managed) being treated as the two levels of the treatment factor (Gibson et al. 2007). There was a total of 4 dependent variables; the mean cross-sectional area, the percentage of flailed hedgerows, the average number of woody species and the mean level of ground cover. For each trapping session the relative density was estimated as the minimum number alive (MNA), or the total number of individuals caught over the three days. Species richness was calculated as the number of different species caught. Using General Linear Modelling (GLM; Minitab 15), I examined the relationships between small mammal densities and a number of predictor variables. The dependent variables I investigated were the overall total small mammal density (MNA) and the total biomass of all small mammals caught within 104m. I also investigated the density of each individual species, constructing similar models for the number of captures and biomass for each individual species. I focused on wood mice Apodemus sylvaticus and bank voles Clethrionomys glareolus. There were also some captures of field voles Microtus agrestis and common shrew Sorex araneus, these data were not investigated individually but were included in the total density of small mammals and the total biomass. The pr edictor variables considered were the presence/absence of ES management, the presence/absence of a conservation buffer strip and the number of standard and veteran trees within the hedgerow. The relationships were analysed using a backward stepwise GLM, with all main predictors and their first order interactions initially included within the model. The insignificant interactions were then removed. Each trapping session was carried out over 3 days on 4 sites on neighbouring farms, the variation between trapping locations and times was taken into account by including the variable ‘block’ within the initial model, however, it was found to have no significance and was therefore removed from the final model. There are well documented seasonal variations in small mammal abundance (Alibhai and Gipps 1985; Flowerdew 1985; Butet et al. 2006), therefore, as there were two major trapping seasons (mid-April to May and Mid-June to July) I included the variable ‘season’ in all models. The number of captures of field voles and common shrew were too low to allow thorough analysis; however, the number of captures for each species was investigated using a Kruskal-Wallis test (Minitab 15) to determine the relationship between the presence of a buffer strip and their individual abundance. Results The total number of catches was 276 individual small mammals of four different species, during 240 trap sessions (dusk till dawn and dawn till dusk). The most abundant species were wood mice, making up 45% of the captures, 11% of which were juveniles, with a total capture of 122 individuals (61 in the first season of trapping and 61 in the second season). 32% (89 individuals) of captures were bank voles, none of which were juveniles, with 26 captures in season 1 and 53 captures in season 2. 17% of captures (48 individuals) were common shrews and 6% (17 individuals) were field voles. Table 1. Summary of the number of captures for each species Total Wood mice Captured – Season 1 (juveniles) / Season 2 (juveniles) Bank vole – Season 1 / Season 2 Field vole – Season 1 / Season 2 Common shrew – Season 1 / Season 2 Total – Season 1 / Season 2 Total N trapped throughout study 122 – 61 (2) / 61 (11) 89 – 36 / 53 17 – 4 / 13 48 – 28 / 20 276 – 129 / 147 Percentage of total 44 33 6 17 100 Percentage of hedgerows present 93 46 23 45 Effect of ES Management and Buffer strips A total of 40 hedgerows were surveyed with 20 hedgerows under ES hedgerow management and 20 hedgerows under non-ES management. ES sites had been under ES hedgerow management for 2 years or more. The measured dimensions of the hedgerow were used to estimate the hedgerow cross sectional area. Analysis using a paired measures MANOVA found no significant difference in the size of ES managed hedgerows to the size of non-ES managed hedgerows (F(1,9)=0.847, P=0.381). ES management also had no significant effect on the percentage of flailed hedgerows within the farm (F(1,9)=0.019, P=0.889). The woody species diversity within hedgerows was not significantly different between ES managed hedgerows and non-ES managed hedgerows (F(1,9)=3.047, P=0.115). There was a significant positive association of the presence of ES hedgerow management with the level of woody vegetation cover at ground level (F(1,9)=10.613, P=0.010). Table 2. Comparisons of hedgerow characteristics on ES managed farms versus non-ES managed farms. Data were analysed using a paired MANOVA. Mean (SE) Hedgerow characteristic Description of measurement ES Non-ES F(1,9) P Area Average cross sectional area/m2 2.99 (0.12) 2.83 (0.14) 0.847 0.381 Flailed Percentage of hedgerows that had been recently flailed (flailed during previous Winter) 26.00 (2.21) 25.00 (6.54) 0.019 0.893 Species diversity Number of woody species 3.16 (0.24) 2.73 (0.27) 3.047 0.115 Small mammal cover Average Area of small Mammal cover (1=little or no vegetation cover at ground level, 2=gappy cover at ground level, 3=constant vegetation cover from hedgerows at ground level) 2.63 (0.87) 2.13 (0.11) 10.613 0.010 Small Mammal Assemblages Backward stepwise general linear modelling was used to analyse the data. The results showed that buffer strips have a significant effect on the total number caught within the hedgerow (F(1,35)= 16.29, P A GLM for total biomass showed similar results with Season (F(1,34)=0.83, P=0.369) and the number of standard trees (F(1,34)=1.12, P=0.298) both having no significant effect on the total biomass. ES management had a positive association with total biomass (F(1,34)=4.92, P=0.033), as did the presence of a buffer strip (F(1,34)=27.62, P Wood mice were the most common species trapped, contributing 45% of the captures. The factors affecting wood mice captures were analysed using a backward stepwise GLM. Season had no significant effect (F(1,34)=2.36, P=0.134). Unlike the model involving ‘total captures’, ES management (F(1,34)=0.07, P=0.798) and Buffer Strip (F(1,34) A backward stepwise GLM was constructed for both ‘bank vole captures’ and ‘the total bank vole mass’, both models produced similar results. Season had no effect on bank vole captures (F(1,35)=2.06, P=0.160) and total bank vole mass (F(1,35)=1.66, P=0.206). The presence of ES management on the hedgerow had a significant positive effect on the number of bank vole captures (F(1,35)=7.15, P=0.011) and on the total bank vole mass (F(1,35)=5.91, P=0.020). The presence of a buffer also had a significant effect, increasing the number of bank vole captures (F(1,35)=34.90, P Table 3. Summary statistics from general linear models Model Variables F P Adj. R2 Total Captures Season F(1,35)=1.09 0.305 53.79% ES Managed F(1,35)=5.23 0.028a Buffer Strip F(1,35)=16.29 Standard Trees F(1,35)=0.91 0.346 Total Biomassc Season F(1,34)=0.83 0.369 65.32% ES Managed F(1,34)=4.92 0.033a Buffer Strip F(1,34)=27.62 Standard Trees F(1,34)=1.12 0.298 Season*Buffer Strip F(1,34)=3.18 0.083b Wood Mice Captures Season F(1,34)=2.36 0.134 79.72% ES Managed F(1,34)=0.07 0.798 Buffer Strip F(1,34) Standard Trees F(1,34)=79.65 Season*Standard Trees F(1,34)=4.81 0.035a Total Wood Mice Massd Season F(1,35)=1.36 0.252 69.06% ES Managed F(1,35)=0.26 0.616 Buffer Strip F(1,35)=0.05 0.831 Standard Trees F(1,35)=49.03 0.003a Bank Vole Captures Season F(1,35)=2.06 0.160 54.76% ES Managed F(1,35)=7.15 0.011a Buffer Strip F(1,35)=34.90 Standard Trees F(1,35)=4.41 0.043a Total Bank Vole Masse Season F(1,35)=1.66 0.206 50.74% ES Managed F(1,35)=5.91 0.020a Buffer Strip F(1,35)=28.11 Standard Trees F(1,35)=2.32 0.137 a – Significant to the 95% confidence level b – Significant to the 90% confidence level c Total Biomass was square root transformed before analysis. d Wood Mice Mass was square root transformed before analysis. e Bank Vole Mass was square root transformed before analysis. A total of 17 field voles were captured, with all 17 trapped in hedgerows flanked by a conservation buffer strip. A total of 48 Common shrews were trapped, 81% of which were caught in hedgerows not flanked by a buffer strip Table 4. Non-target species captures. Effect of buffer strip, analysed using Kruskal-Wallis test. Total Captures Species Buffer Strip Present No Buffer Strip H P (adjusted for ties) Field vole 17 0 8.30 0.004 Common shrew 9 38 12.73 Discussion Hedgerow characteristics are known to affect small mammal numbers. Hedgerows with many gaps and a lack of ground cover support significantly lower small mammal populations (Gelling et al. 2007). Small mammals will select against hedgerows with a lack of vegetative cover due to the increased risk of predation (Orrock et al. 2004). Our results suggest that ES farms produce denser hedgerows with more cover at the ground level than non-ES farms. This is reflected in the small mammal survey which shows a somewhat strong association between small mammal numbers and ES hedgerows. However, having surveyed the farms and the farmers, I acknowledge that a wide number of variables affect the characteristics of the hedgerow. I suggest that the state of the hedgerows for small mammals is more significantly affected by the mindset of the farmer. Those farmers who have moved onto the Entry level ES scheme are generally those who most actively manage their farm. One supporting piece of data for this theory, is the number of flailed hedgerows on ES farms compared to non-ES farms. The hedgerow survey found that there were no differences in the number of recently flailed hedgerows within ES farms compared to non-ES farms, therefore, even though the cutting of hedgerows on ES farms is restricted, it still occurs as often on the ES farms within this survey than on the non-ES farms. The suggestion is that those farmers who are on the ES scheme are more actively involved in managing their farm, including their hedgerows, therefore hedgerows on ES farms commonly provide denser vegetation, less gaps and more cover at ground level. The typical ES farmer is more actively managing the hedge as a boundary or barrier to cattle than the typical non-ES farmer. The author suggests this conclusion having discussed hedgerow management with the farmers as part of the hedgerow survey and having a background in agriculture, however, it is also recognised that this topic goes beyond the scope and ava ilable data of this investigation. Hedgerows can be thought of as corridors linking woodland habitat, allowing small mammal migration (Soule and Terbough 1999), however, within the British pastoral landscape, hedgerows are often acting as the sole habitat for small mammals (Fitzgibbon 1997). My investigation found that the ratio of juvenile to adult wood mice increased during the season, with greater numbers present later in the summer, this is consistent with the observations of others (Alibhai and Gipps 1991, Flowerdew 1991). The breeding season for most small mammals begins in spring and ends in late summer, therefore it is natural that more juveniles are present in hedgerows as the summer progresses and they travel outward to establish their own home ranges. The presence of fully grown, breeding adults in both seasons of trapping indicates that animals are resident within the hedgerows, providing support for the argument that linear habitats can provide suitable habitat to support viable populations of small mamma ls. My results show that the total small mammal abundance and therefore the availability of prey biomass for predators is increased in hedgerows under ES management. The results of the hedgerow survey suggest that there is greater ground level vegetation cover in ES hedgerows. An increase in the amount of physical habitat creates greater foraging opportunities and can increase small mammal abundance (Gelling et al. 2007). Small mammals prefer hedgerows with greater ground level cover as they provide better refuge from predators (Orrock et al. 2004). Whereas the benefits of ES management for small mammal abundance remain unclear, this investigation highlights the importance of buffer strips. The value of unimproved grassy margins, in arable landscapes, for small mammal numbers has already been shown (Shore et al. 2005). This study suggests that the presence of a buffer strip along a hedgerow can provide a much improved habitat to support larger small mammal numbers in hedgerows within pastoral landscapes. Grassy margins are a refuge for small mammals beyond the hedgerow; they allow increased safety for foraging and greater shelter (Orrock et al. 2004). To understand the variation in the numbers trapped of each species, we need to establish an understanding of the differing ecological requirements for each species. The two most abundant species were the wood mouse and the bank vole. The results show that wood mice are found in greater numbers in hedgerows containing standard/veteran trees. This conclusion is supported by previous studies which have shown that trees within hedgerows are beneficial for wood mice (Montgomerie and Dowie, 1993). Mice often take shelter in burrows formed beneath trees/within tree roots which may suggest why this species was found more commonly within hedgerows containing standard/veteran trees (Montgomerie and Dowie, 1993). Wood mice are a generalist species occupying a wide variety of habitat (Flowerdew 1993). They general occupy a relatively large home range and travel extensively, consuming a wide range of food sources depending upon season and availability (Flowerdew 1993). This is reflected in the re sults, with wood mice having been trapped in 93% of all the hedgerows. The results also show that wood mice abundance is not affected by ES management for hedgerows, nor is it significantly improved by the presence of a buffer strip. Wood mice have been shown to avoid hedgerows with major gaps, and wood mouse captures have been shown to increase with proximity to woodland (Gelling et al. 2007). Wood mice have relatively large home ranges and the suggestion is that individuals rarely stay long within any one hedgerow; rather they travel through, utilising hedgerows for foraging and shelter between woodland (Montgomery and Dowie 1993; Gelling et al 2007; Todd et al 2000; Tew et al. 2000). Therefore, ES management and the presence of buffer strips have little effect on the number of wood mouse captures; more important is the proximity to woodland or the presence of trees within a hedgerow which provide the preferred shelter for the wood mouse (Todd et al. 2000; Tew et al. 2000). Bank voles are a more specialist species, and generally occupy much smaller home ranges than do wood mice. They are burrowers, using ground vegetation to create runs and pathways in deciduous habitats (Morris 1982; Alibhai and Gipps 1985). Bank voles are a major prey resource for a number of raptors and bank vole abundance has been shown to significantly affect raptor populations (Korpimaki and Norrdahl, 1991). Other studies have found that bank vole numbers are positively associated with the size of hedgerows (Pollard Relton, 1970; Tew, 1994; Bellamy et al., 2000). Grassy margins of 2m plus have been shown to significantly increase bank vole numbers in arable fields (Shore et al. 2005), my results show that this conclusion extends to pastoral landscapes with bank vole numbers being significantly increased by the presence of an unimproved grassy margin or conservation buffer strip. The results also suggest that ES management improves hedgerows for bank voles, with bank vole abundanc e found to be significantly higher on ES hedgerow sites. Bank voles are found in much greater abundance in areas which provide thick ground vegetation and suffer little disturbance (Tew 1994), my results suggest that this is partially provided by ES management, however, the creation of grassy margins along hedgerows could significantly improve bank vole abundance in pastoral landscapes. The creation of margins could also be significant in the conservation of field voles. Field vole numbers in the UK are in decline believed to be due to the loss of rough grass habitat in intensively managed arable regions (Harris et al., 1995; Love et al., 2000). Field voles are specialists and depend upon rough, ungrazed grassland within woodland and hedgerows. Field voles are generally only found within areas of long grass (Alibhai and Gipps, 1991b). Very few captures of field voles were recorded within this experiment, however all field voles captures occurred within hedgerows flanked by conservation buffer strips. The presence of a buffer strip may provide the field voles’

American Law Essay -- essays research papers

Throughout the United States there are many different laws among the fifty states that make up this union. The laws are different throughout the states because of the need of the laws. Living in one state and not having the advantages or disadvantages of a law in another state would not be that unfair or unequal. This is true because if you don’t like a law in your state you could always fight it and try to change it or you could always move out of that state and go to one that has the laws that you like. One of the big issues in life today is gun safety. Due to the recent high school shootings many legislatures are pushing for stricter gun laws. In Montana you can’t carry a concealed weapon inside city, town or logging camp limits but if you have a permit you can carry a concealed weapon in many instances. Where as in Wisconsin the state does not give permits that give a person the right to carry a concealed weapon, if caught with a concealed weapon it is a misdemeanor. Now looking at these two cases would you say that this is unfair to the people in Wisconsin because they can’t walk around the streets with a concealed gun. I don’t think that it is unfair but in fact a precaution that Wisconsin has, and they are actually looking out for the safety of their citizens. Another law that we can look at is drinking and driving. All the states have different laws on how high your blood alcohol level can be. After reviewing some of the laws I found that in Vermont if your are pull...

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Soviet gymnasts astounded the world with highly disciplined and difficult performances, setting a precedent that continues. The new medium of television has helped publicize and initiate a modern age of gymnastics. Both men's and women's gymnastics now attract considerable international interest, and excellent gymnasts can be found on every continent. Nadia Comaneci received the first perfect score, at the 1976 Summer Olympics held in Montreal, Canada. She was coached in Romania by coach, (Hungarian ethnicity), Bella Karolyn. Comaneci scored four of her perfect tens on the uneven bars, two on the balance beam and one in the floor exercise. Even with Nadia's perfect scores, the Romanians lost the gold medal to the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, Comaneci became an Olympic icon. In 2006, FIG introduced a new points system for Artistic gymnastics in which scores are no longer limited to 10 points. The system is used in the US for elite level competition. Unlike the old code of points, ther e are two separate scores, an execution score and a difficulty score. In the previous system, the "exe...

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Income inequality can be defined as the difference of distribution of assets, wealth, and income between the populations. The term income inequality refers to the inequality among persons within a society. The topic is commonly debated, and the liberties and rights of people are often brought into the debate being made. In America, it has been said that â€Å"The 400 richest people in the United States have more wealth than the bottom 150 million put together† leading the reader to believe there is a huge inequality problem that is only growing wider. There is no doubt that the income gap in America is growing, with the middle class taking home 9% less than they had in 1999, but I feel that the government does not have the obligation to lessen the gap between rich and poor. There is no doubt that the economic ladder is growing farther and farther apart and the rungs of this ladder are becoming harder and harder to climb, however, the government does not hold the obligation to lessen the gap. The UN’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that equality and liberty will be protected...

Research Credibility And Research Ethical Issues Education Essay

This chapter is about research method that we have applied for this thesis and the grounds that why we have choose this method in our research. In this subdivision, this survey ‘s research method is started with Research scheme, research types, informations aggregation techniques which we have followed. Furthermore, we will speak about research credibleness and research ethical issues. Students and research workers have to happen out the best suitable manner to depict and document their proceedings, findings, thesis and thesiss depending upon the features every bit good as nature of the research. There are two chief methods to document a research: Qualitative research and Quantitative research. Before traveling into the inside informations of our preferable pick, we would wish to convey our clearer position to both footings. Quantitative research, in its simplest significances, is more appropriate when the difference in footings of measurings and sums ( more or less, bigger or smaller, frequently or rarely ) is to be studied ( Thomas R.M, 2003 ) . Seal ( 1999 ) argues that in quantitative research, research workers can utilize tabular arraies of Numberss based on standardised measuring devices which are introduced and described in the literature to sum up the measurings. Thomas ( 2003 ) defined quantitative research as followers: â€Å" Quantitative research uses Numberss and statistical methods. It tends to be based on numerical measurings of specific facets of phenomena ; it abstracts from peculiar cases to seek general description or to prove causal hypotheses ; it seeks measurings and analyses that are easy replicable by other research workers † . In the contrast, qualitative research is more concerned in the reading of events and societal behaviours ( Thomas R.M, 2003 ) . Harmonizing to Cresswell ( 2007 ) qualitative research is an inquiry procedure of understanding based on distinguishable methodological traditions of enquiry that explore a societal or human job. A research worker builds a complex, holistic image, analyzes the universe, studies detailed positions of sources and conducts the survey in natural scene. Thomas ( 2003 ) defined qualitative research as followers: â€Å" Qualitative research is multi-methods in focal point, affecting and interpretative realistic attack to its capable affair. This means that qualitative research workers study things in their natural scenes, trying to do sense of, or interpret phenomena in footings of significances people bring to them. Qualitative research involves the studied usage and aggregation of a assortment of empirical stuffs – instance survey, personal experience, introspective, life narrative, interview, experimental, historical, interactive and ocular texts that describe everyday and debatable minutes and significances in people ‘s lives † . Qualitative research can be achieved through many informations aggregation methods such as observation, interviews, focal point groups and paperss and others ( Fisher et al. , 2007 ) . The nature of our research inquiry clearly indicates that we need a elaborate and deep survey about the issue. A qualitative survey is utile attack to acquire deep apprehension ( Creswell, 2007 ) and research inquiries get downing with why or how are hard to quantify, which is cause of a qualitative attack recommendation for such types of research inquiries that have an exploratory research methodological analysis ( Yin, 2003 ) . Along with the research inquiry, this research survey is aimed to intensify the apprehension of Virtual University ‘s working in Pakistan. This aspect strengthens our pick to carry on a qualitative research along with several others e.g. nature of research inquiries. Our purpose is seeking to happen an reply that what benefits are being provided by practical university i n Pakistan. Benefits ca n't be step and taken into an sum particularly in our research survey. Some may reason that benefits can be step in currency or something else but that ‘s really rarely and in rather different scenes. Second, the chief research inquiry focuses on how does ICT supported distance instruction work in Pakistan. This inquiry ca n't be answered in magnitudes and measurings. Aforesaid conditions set qualitative research as best option for us to follow in order to carry on this research survey and reply the research inquiries.Research SchemeYin ( 1994 ) besides describes different intents of research: explanatory, Exploratory and descriptive. Harmonizing to Yin ( 1994 ) , a research worker can utilize a research scheme to on the footing of its attack and features. Research method is important to the acquisition of scientific values and cognition as explained by Marczyk et Al. ( 2005 ) : â€Å" Science can be defined as a methodological and systematic attack to the acquisition of new cognition † . Supplemented by ( Bryman 2001, confirm it with the mention manner ) explicit findings gathered through systematic attack harmonizing to the research inquiry ( s ) should be included in the every research. Our research survey has twofold intent: to understand the working of ICT supported engineerings in Pakistan and how the ICT can be used and implemented to carry through the educational demands and maximal benefits. The encephalon storming session started with the phenomenal success of Virtual University of Pakistan. Virtual University is the first, yet one and merely, of its sort in Pakistan and have a phenomenal success ratio along with the high quality instruction. The formless and unorganised brainstorming to this research essay was started with the construct of vitamin E acquisition in Pakistan. E acquisition is widely accepted all over the universe and believed to hold its blend in instruction sector and has already formed a new movi ng ridge of larning system, although, the descent of distance acquisition is associated to late 1800. Virtual university in Pakistan was inaugurated in March 2002. The thought behind the development of this establishment was to utilize the antecedently established substructure ( for conventional acquisition institutes ) and provide quality instruction with a blend of handiness and flexibleness. During our pre-study and unstructured encephalon ramping stage, we came across the fact the intercrossed acquisition theoretical account is chiefly used for such sort of undertakings. We started to research the research country by researching vitamin E acquisition in its different forms in general, different theoretical accounts for vitamin E acquisition, engineerings used for vitamin E acquisition, in house and off the shelf merchandises and solutions to different challenges. This later was followed by concentrating on vitamin E acquisition in Pakistan and its success during past twosome of old ages. This literature survey helped us to contract down the research subject with a well defined focal point point, define the job country to work upon and form good structured research inquiries. Pre survey along with the literature survey besides helped us to develop the theoretical foundation of our research survey. The information for research survey, including both certification provided by the university forces and in-detail interviews with forces stand foring Virtual University of Pakistan and the pupils of Virtual University of Pakistan. Students will be selected i ndiscriminately and will be contacted for interviews to forestall the influence of some specific group representation. The interviews and informations gathered will be analyzed by utilizing the analysis model and will be presented in the analysis subdivision of this study. There are diverse manners of research surveies out at that place. This research essay is influenced from pragmatism and positivism with a blend of explanatory survey. Pragmatism focuses on thought and work outing jobs in a realistic manner. Oxford University imperativeness defined pragmatism as â€Å" believing about work outing jobs in a practical and reasonable manner instead than by holding fixed thoughts and theories † [ mention ] where as Cambridge online dictionary defines it as â€Å" when you deal with a job in a realistic manner instead than obeying theories and fixed regulations † . Positivism in its significances defined by Oxford University Press is â€Å" a system of doctrine based on things that can be seen or approved, instead than on thoughts † . Our research survey is explanatory in nature as explanatory research survey is used to intensify the cognition of the object field and to seek the comprehension. Positivism and pragmatism are clearly defi ned in the academic literature and possibly hold really good formed boundaries in the literature but when it is the instance to implement them in pattern, they sometimes overlap. However we are non claiming that our research have purely followed any of these, since they are wide constructs in scientific debate, but saying our research survey has sunglassess of these comprehensive constructs. Our research survey is explanatory and we think it ‘s instead of import to advert what type of cognition is sought and aimed for given that there are several types and classifications and unmeasurable cognition bing in a assortment of formats out at that place, and the replies every bit good as analysis might hold different intensions depending upon the sort of cognition is aimed for. Sociology section at Ohio province university has categorized the intent of research as followers: Exploratory, Descriptive and Explanatory. The intent of explorative research surrounds the finds in the focussed subject and unveils the facts about it. It besides helps in the preparation of inquiries, set waies and provides the feasibleness of future surveies. Specific inside informations of the state of affairs are studied in Descriptive Research with a well formed and focused research inquiry. Whereas, Explanatory research focuses on the ground behind the state of affairs being or have been occur red. Explanatory research usually uses theory and much of the research being published in diary presents is explanatory [ Ohio State University ] . While composing a research essay, along with other deliberations, it was taken attention at a great extent to supply the fullness cognition of the topic to the reader. A reader of an academic research essay can be a cognition searcher, a pupil, an industry professional and a research bookman. A reader should besides be able to happen out the connectivity and the ruddy yarn throughout the research survey. Whereas the research survey should, in itself, be able to exhibit connectivity, grounds and scientific debate every bit good as the outgrowth of the research country and research job. To guarantee this, we found thematic construction good suited for our intent. Thematic construction, in linguistics, as defined by Wikipedia has three intents in it as followers: â€Å" to convey given information and new information † â€Å" capable and predicate † â€Å" Frame and penetration † The actual procedure, nevertheless, from the really get downing to stop was literary since the cognition retrieved from the literature, the pre-study stage and the information received from different beginnings was gathered, processed and analyzed in different unit of ammunitions and so was added to the research study. To guarantee the connectivity, we besides plotted the summery to each chapter at the terminal and an debut was to the chapter was besides placed at the start of each chapter. We categorized the day of the month in each chapter with part classs called as headers and sub subdivisions called as subheadings to guarantee the hierarchal construction of the study and, slightly, do it instead easier for the reader to understand. The undermentioned figure shows the stairss taken and the procedure to finish the research survey.Datas assemblageDifferent type can be used during a research survey to beef up the research and support findings. Date gathered during the survey besides richens the quality of research and back up the treatment and analysis ( Seals 1999 ) . During our survey, we found three basic types of informations assemblage are appropriate for to back up our debate ; Interviews, observations and certification ( Seals, 1999 ) . Different types of informations garnering techniques non merely back up the cogency of the information gathered and assist in the generalisation. Furthermore, cyberspace was besides used as secondary type to garner quality informations ( Creswell, 2007 ) but besides fortify the research to organize the triangulation in the research survey. Additionally, cyberspace was besides used as a secondary type for day of the month assemblage.Interview usher coevalsAn interview usher in dicates the subjects and sequence of these subjects in the interview, which should be prepared before carry oning the interview ( Kvale, 1996 ) . Our interview usher ( Appendix No ) contains inquiries which we selected to maintain in position the focal point of our survey. We have unfastened inquiries to acquire maximal information from interviewees. Nodoubt replies of such inquiries hard to compare with each others ( interviewees ) , but its sure that the subject of these replies will be common ( Ostbye et Al. 2003:143 ) .InterviewsInterviews were the basic component of our informations assemblage scheme as mentioned earlier. Harmonizing to Yin ( 2003 ) in information assemblage and analyzing, interviews are the basic and cardinal beginnings. Since we have adopted a qualitative attack in order to carry on our survey so the possibility to plan questionnaires was eliminated. Harmonizing to Preece et Al ( 2003 ) there are four types of interviews: Structured, Semi Structured, Unstruct ured and group interviews. Whereas group interviews are more a sort of treatment in which interviewer has less control over the interview activity. The remainder ; semi structured, structured and unstructured interviews provide much control to the interviews in the signifier of predefined set of inquiries. Preece et Al, ( 2003 ) besides argued about the pick of interviews types depending upon the aim and the research inquiries. Our research inquiries and aim has set us to plan semi-structured interviews since the purpose is to hold an overall apprehension of the working of ICT based distance larning in Pakistan. Harmonizing to Preece et Al, ( 2003 ) semi structured interviews are more appropriate when the purpose is to acquire a comprehension or feed back to some specific issue. Semi structured interviews are a blend of structured and unstructured interviews dwelling both unfastened and closed inquiries. In order to keep consistence, we designed interviews so that we can get down qu estioning in a pre-planned manner and subsequently can delve deeper into the subject and question the interviewee to acquire the really relevant information. Now we would wish to convey our reader to our designed construction of the interview.Structure of the interviewIn order to plan the interviews, we followed preece et Al, ( 2003 ) who outlined 5 chief Sessionss in an interview viz. ; Introduction session, warm up session, chief session, cool – off session and shutting session. Introductory session: apparent by its name, both interviewees and interviewer were officially introduced to each other and the aim of the research was explained to the interviewee. Confidentiality and other ethical issues were besides discussed and got approved during this session. Warm up session: non endangering inquiries were posed during this session to garner basic information about the interviewee and his/her duties in the organisation. E.g. for how long have you been working in this organisation? Main session: Main session consisted of the inquiries to adhere the job and was focused to reply the research inquiries. Questions in chief session were good aligned to garner the basic apprehension to the really elaborate information about the focussed subject. Cool off session: cool off Sessionss consisted of instead of import and unfastened inquiry to proceeding towards the terminal of the interview. E.g. would you like add any more item? Closing session: interviewer thanks to the interviewee and switches off the entering signaling that interviewee has ended. Not holding so much structurised interviews entertained interviewees with a less controlled environment which helped them to explicate their position and point of views in a different angle and their engagement towards the topic. This sort of interview technique besides has disadvantages as there is no clear boundary to specify what lies outside of the aim and how to command the interviewee and mold them back to the subject.Interview SelectionDifferent informations aggregation motive has different grade of interview constructions. When selected the interview construction there are a few different types to see in order justifying that why the particular type was chosen. â€Å" At one extreme is the structured interview, where the interviewer asks the respondent a preset set of inquiries which can non be changed or restructured. An unstructured interview on the other manus, takes on an opposite attack. In such an interview the respondent is able to speak freely about the subject without any guidance or influence from the interviewer ( Teorell & A ; Svensson, 2006 ) . In between these two extremes is the semi-structured interview where the preparation of the inquiries can change depending on the respondent. The interviewer merely uses an interview usher with a few subjects and issues that need to be covered ( Fisher, 2007 ) . The pick of the degree of construction should be guided by the intent of the research † ( Franzen & A ; Gunes 2008 ) . We selected semi-structure interviews because we want to give the interviewee the opportunity to lend more without interrupting and restricting. Our intent to choose semi-structure interview is that the interviewee non merely answer to our inquiries, but besides can show extra point ‘s remarks which may lend to the research even further. In add-on, Franzen & A ; Gunes ( 2008 ) explain: â€Å" Furthermore, semi-structured interviews will enable adaptation to each respondent and interview scene by al- mooing us to: alteration preparations of the inquiries, reorder them, and follow up with new inquiries if needed. A job with a less structured attack is the increased trouble of transporting out the analysis due to the complexness of the information gathered ( Holme & A ; Solvang, 1997 ) . However, we believe the additions will be superior to this drawback. †Respondent / Interviewee Preparation and SchedulingThe choice of interviewee or respondent is really of import because right information is merely acquire from relevant individual. In order to acquire information about first portion of our thesis â€Å" working of ICT based instruction † , we selected managerial staff that has complete background, history and current position of VU undertaking. For this intent foremost we get elaborate information like appellations, functions and responsibilities of al l employees from all sections of VU. As this was hard undertaking but we clearly mentioned our intent of research, which prepare their head to collaborate with us. To acquire in contact with the right individuals we started by reaching the highest possible employees by electronic mail. Many phone calls and electronic mails were necessary to happen the right individual, and agree on an interview day of the month. These are all people with busy agendas and any assignment had to be done early. Since clip is money it is of import non to blow the interviewee ‘s clip. Being good prepared and holding clear inquiries will do the interview a reasonably speedy and easy procedure for all parts involved ( Kvale, S. 1996 ) . Interview is non merely manner to aggregation of informations even building of informations ( Kvale, 1996 ) . In order to hold entree of inteviewees ‘ informations for subsequently utilize a location and a recording device is necessary. The most appropriate campaigners for interviews were the proficient staff and managerial staff of VU because they can supply coveted information.Table: Structure of IntervieweesSr. # .Intervi ewees ‘ NameDesignation & A ; DepartmentNumber of InterviewsWay of InterviewInterview Plan / ProceduresWe will take up interview with a brief debut of ourselves, grounds to carry on interview and background of our research undertaking. Furthermore, we will besides acquire bio informations of our selected interviewees to understand their cognition and experience in relevant country ( Briony, 2006 ) . Bing good prepared and holding clear inquiries will do the interview a reasonably speedy and easy procedure for all parts involved ( Kvale, S. 1996 ) . Normally our interview clip will be in between 50 to 70 proceedingss to guarantee our interviewee non experience wastage of clip, and will seek to do the interviewees feel comfy and free. We will besides maintain in position all regulations and ordinances of interview like our functions, environment and inquiries type which will be asked. Our function being an interviewer good behaved and will take to normal conversation ( Ostbye et al.2003:104 ) . In our instance, we can non carry on face to confront interview which is really expensive and clip wastage for us travel to Pakistan. So, we will carry on interview by utilizing Skype and electronic mail. As we could non cognize the environment of interviewee ‘s topographic point but we will carry on interview at that day of the month and clip which will be executable for interviewees. There are different ways to carry on interview, for illustration by mail, electronic mail, telephone, VoIP, or face to face. We will prefer electronic mail and VoIP ( Skype ) . We decided that we will carry on foremost interview by electronic mail, the end product of this interview and from this interview we will develop follow-up inquiries. After first electronic mail interview analysis, we will carry on 2nd interview by Skype which give us the chance to inquire follow-up inquiries to acquire more elaborate information.InstrumentalityaˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦ . To be addedaˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦ .DocumentsSeveral types of paperss were collected from the forces stand foring of Virtual University of Pakistan to understand the working of the organisation. However, we do n't claim that all facets of organisational working were got into attending e.g. fiscal affairs, policy affairs. These paperss helped us to understand the initial set up phase of VU, intents of VU undertakin g, contents development, contents bringing, pupil instructor interaction, Learning Management system and many others things which we do non believe suited to add in our research. Most of these paperss were gathered electronically in digital signifier. Some of them were for public usage and can besides found on the Virtual University ‘s web site and some were confidential and the exclusive intent to present them was to hold a better apprehension. These paperss provide us valuable information which helped us to construction more appropriate interview inquiries.Use of literatureWe conducted a literature reappraisal to supply the rational job country and place of our research to the current literature within the subjects of involvement ( Creswell, 2007 ) . We preferred the choice of those articles about e-learning which are largely cited or referenced by other writers. Articles are primary based on scientific articles found from the Electronic Library Information Navigator ( ELIN ) and the Internet, complemented with commonly well-recognized mention literature. To seek relevant informations, we used keywords of † e-learning † , â€Å" e-learning system † , â€Å" ICT based acquisition † , † ICT based instruction † , â€Å" Virtual Education † , â€Å" Virtual University † , and † Virtual Learning † in different combinations. We besides used books which were issued from Economic School ‘s Library every bit good as used e-book. We took initial measure to research about e-learning from an e-book † Theory and Practice of Online Learning † . These beginnings of information were used to acquire elaborate information about e-learning basic constructs, e-learning system, e-learning theoretical accounts, larning techniques and methods used for research in this country of survey. This was done to reexamine Published literature from e-libraries, books, diaries and documents related to the proposed subject. The literature reappraisal provide context of our research and state approximately work done by others research workers antecedently in this country of survey ( Dawson, 2005 ) . Literature has been an of import portion of research survey with an purpose to roll up the beginnings of literature from both, bookmans and E larning practicians. Of class, at some certain points we had to contract down our research merely on the E acquisition in Pakistan. We collected scholarly articles and research documents to lighten up and intensify our constructs about E larning. We besides used on-line web beginnings and hunt engines ( Google, yokel ) and lexicons, wherever we found it dependable, to do us better understand different constructs and show them in the most appropriate manner to our reader. After roll uping literary stuff, while construing it we found it instead of import to hold a critical position on the beginnings every bit good as the stuff itself since some of the stuff was instead old and was showing rather different expression as compared to current times. Whereas some of the recent research articles glorifies the present tendencies.Datas AnalysisData analy sis is stems the research work and is an of import portion. Data analysis has some certain stairss as argued by Miles and Huberman ( 1994 ) , informations analysis consists of informations decrease, informations show and informations Marczyk et Al ( 2005 ) â€Å" in most type of research surveies, the procedure of informations analysis involves the undermentioned three stairss: ( 1 ) fixing the information for analysis, ( 2 ) analysing the information and ( 3 ) construing the information † . In our research survey, the first measure fixing informations was performed in the signifier of literature reappraisal and the survey of paperss provided by the practical university forces which in title was a uninterrupted and iterative procedure.Research QualityIt is of import to warrant that a research survey has dependability and cogency. In this subdivision, we are traveling to show that how we have worked and followed the cogency and dependability which are belong to the scientific quality research ( Creswell, 2007 ; Seale, 1999 ) . Furthermore, Bias and Ethical motives are besides discussed to back up the research quality of our thesis. Research dependability and cogency are two factors that must be considered to do the research trustworthy ( Bjorklund & A ; Paulsson, 2003 ) . In our research cogency is concerned in which extent we truly measured what we set out to mensurate, and dependability is concerned that our consequences will be same if our research consequences probe by person once more with the same set of instruments.DependabilityaˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦ . To be addedaˆÂ ¦by MraˆÂ ¦ WaqasaˆÂ ¦ .CogencyKvale ( 1996 ) describes cogency is â€Å" a method investigates what it is intended to look into. † In our survey, the interview cogency are chiefly involves if we can right understand what the interviewee mean. As Kvale ( 1996 ) provinces when choose the transcript ‘s lingual manner it is besides of import to accomplish valid interlingual rendition from the unwritten to written certification. Therefore, we checked the text with our interviewee after transcribing. We send th em our written text of their sentiment, if some parts of the written text they do non hold, we will pass on with them and modify the written text.aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦ . To be addedaˆÂ ¦by MraˆÂ ¦ WaqasaˆÂ ¦ .Ethical motivesEthical behaviour helps to protect persons, communities and environments, and offers the potency to increase the amount of good in the universe ( Israel, 2006 ) . Bing responsible research workers, we have to do certain our behaviours will non harm any participants who are belonging to our research procedure during research or after the publication of concluding study. So to do certain good moralss in the research, we informed interviewees by electronic mail and by telephone ( Appendix No ) about issues including the research subject, research inquiry, research range, informations confidentiality, privateness, personal individuality, research result and the questionnaires ( Appendix No ) before interview. It has besides been indicated to I nterviewees that what may go on to the informations, including its possible usage in any studies or publications because this survey might be used by the other people subsequently. So, we managed this research in this manner that there should non be any harm to interviewees and their institute. To maintain in position Privacy, namelessness and confidentiality factors ; interviewees have been informed that they can retreat from the interview without stipulating any ground ( Singer & A ; Vinson, 2002 ) . For better apprehension, the canned interview informations will direct back to interviewees to verify that everything harmonizing to interviewees ‘ words of oral cavity and non any alteration has made in their replies. In add-on, interviewee knows the intent of utilizing the information and where it will be used. Therefore, the empirical informations used in this survey should non harm any interviewee ( Israel & A ; Hay, 2006 ) . Informed consent, confidentiality, and the function of the research worker are the ethical guidelines ( Kvale, 1996 ) , so we make certain that our interviewees will non hold any job to understand our research subjects and information which we want to acquire from them, for illustration, our intent of research, nature of research, who is the research worker, how long is the interview will take, how we will utilize their informations and how to circulating the research findings ( Briony 2006 ) . Furthermore, the interviewees have been requested kindly for their cooperation and non oblige them for participate in our researchBiasTo guarantee high quality research survey, research worker should believe over the prejudice. A research worker should progress into a research with a clear and unfastened head in order to avoid any prejudice to act upon the terminal consequence ( Backman, 1998 ; Oates, 2006 ) . There is no clear definition of prejudice but it can be related to prepossession and bias ( Hammersley & A ; Gomm, 1997 ) . Harmonizing to Harmmersley and Gomm ( 1997 ) , prejudice has considered a positive characteristic because prejudice reveals concealed facets of phenomena. Unbiased research non merely concentrating on our ain believes and premises, but give importance to others point of positions and experiences. We address the possible prejudice by reflecting and showing our place as research workers. â€Å" A consideration of ego as a research worker and ego in relation to the subject of research is a stipulation for get bying with prejudice. † ( Norris, 1997, pp. 3 ) . We besides be self-critical throughout the full work ( Norris, 1997 ) , we tried to hold periodical treatments among our group members and had critical analysis about the pros and cons of our theoretical model, methods and findings. We purely follow right path and follow the way which we had planed every bit good as we tried to be cognizant when, how and why we have deviated from the planned path. Our scheme leads us to come back on right path.â€Å" Naqash and Waqas can add more ideas harmonizing to your experiences †